Skip to main content
Log in

Parent and Romantic Partner Behaviors during Adolescence as Predictors of Young Adult Positive Personality, Relational Competence, and Functional Independence

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Experiences with parents and romantic partners during adolescence are theorized to have long-term effects on youth development. However, little research has empirically examined the relative contributions of experiences in each type of relationship at different points during adolescence to positive development in young adulthood. The goal of the present study was to predict relative changes in youth positive personality characteristics, relational competence, and functional independence during young adulthood from specific behaviors experienced from parents and romantic partners during early and late adolescence. A diverse community sample of 147 individuals (59 males, 88 females) from the southeastern United States was repeatedly assessed across a 14-year period from age 13 to age 27. As hypothesized, parental acceptance and successful parental positive influence behavior toward adolescents at age 13 predicted relative increases in positive personality traits (e.g., agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability) between ages 23 and 27. These same parental behaviors measured at age 18 were less robust predictors of key outcomes relative to similar qualities of romantic relationships. Instead, romantic behaviors of toleration and appreciation at age 18 predicted relative increases in functional independence and relational competence between ages 23 and 27 (e.g., attachment closeness, reliable alliance, nurturance, and functional independence). Results suggest that parents’ successful efforts to positively influence and accept their children during early adolescence may lay a foundation for future positive personality growth, and that similar positive behaviors experienced in late adolescent romantic relationships may help prepare youth to develop broader supportive social relationships and independence skills in young adulthood.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Erlbaum

  • Allen, J. P., Costello, M., Kansky, J., & Loeb, E. L. (2022). When friendships surpass parental relationships as predictors of long-term outcomes: Adolescent relationship qualities and adult psychosocial functioning. Child Development, 93, 760–777

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques. Erlbaum

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American psychologist, 55(5), 469

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C. D., Lishner, D. A., Cook, J., & Sawyer, S. (2005). Similarity and nurturance: Two possible sources of empathy for strangers. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27(1), 15–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, D. C. (2001). Evolution of parental caregiving. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(3), 216–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & Barends, N. (2002). Personality and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Being and becoming a parent (pp. 415–438). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers

  • Blakemore, S. J., & Mills, K. L. (2014). Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing? Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 187–207

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blonigen, D. M., Carlson, M. D., Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., & Iacono, W. G. (2008). Stability and change in personality traits from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study. Journal of Personality, 76(2), 229–266

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). Basic Books

  • Calkins, S. D., & Leerkes, E. M. (2011). Early attachment processes and the development of emotional self-regulation. In K. D. Vohs, & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 355–373). Guilford Press

  • Capaldi, D. M., King J., & Wilson, J. (1992) Young Adult Adjustment Scale. Unpublished instrument. Oregon Social Learning Center

  • Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotion regulation: Influences of attachment relationships. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 228–249

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, W. A. (2003). More than myth: The developmental significance of romantic relationships during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(1), 1–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connor-Smith, J. K., & Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between personality and coping: a meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 1080–1107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, Jr, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13(6), 653–665

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. (1987). The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress. In W. H. Jones & D. Perlman (Eds.) Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 1, pp. 37–67). JAI Press

  • DeYoung, C. G., Peterson, J. B., & Higgins, D. M. (2002). Higher-order factors of the Big Five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health? Personality and Individual Differences, 33(4), 533–552

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Digman, J. M. (1997). Higher-order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1246–1256

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Englund, M. M., Kuo, S. I.-C., Puig, J., & Collins, W. A. (2011). Early roots of adult competence: The significance of close relationships from infancy to early adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(6), 490–496

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Furman, W., & Shomaker, L. B. (2008). Patterns of interaction in adolescent romantic relationships: Distinct features and links to other close relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 31(6), 771–788

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • George, C., & Solomon, J. (2016). The attachment doll play assessment: Predictive validity with concurrent mother-child interaction and maternal caregiving representations. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1594

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, L. R. (1999). A broad-bandwidth, public domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models. In I. Mervielde, I. Deary, F. De Fruyt, & F. Ostendorf (Eds.), Personality Psychology in Europe (Vol. 7, pp. 7–28). Tilburg University Press

  • Goldberg, L. R., Johnson, J. A., Eber, H. W., Hogan, R., Ashton, M. C., Cloninger, C. R., & Gough, H. C. (2006). The International Personality Item Pool and the future of public-domain personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 84–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graziano, W. G., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Agreeableness: A dimension of personality. In R. Hogan, J. A. Johnson, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 795–824). Academic Press

  • Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994). Impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241(4865), 540–545

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, H. D., Kent, A., & Yale, E. (2012). Examination of identity and romantic relationship intimacy associations with well-being in emerging adulthood. Identity, 12(4), 296–319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J. D., Fraley, R. C., Ehrlich, K. B., Stern, J. A., Lejuez, C. W., Shaver, P. R., & Cassidy, J. (2018). Stability of attachment style in adolescence: An empirical test of alternative developmental processes. Child Development, 89(3), 871–880

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kansky, J., & Allen, J. P. (2018). Long-term risks and possible benefits associated with late adolescent romantic relationship quality. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(7), 1531–1544

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kotov, R., Gamez, W., Schmidt, F., & Watson, D. (2010). Linking “big” personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(5), 768

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Le Deist, F. D., & Winterton, J. (2005). What is competence? Human Resource Development International, 8(1), 27–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehnart, J., Neyer, F. J., & Eccles, J. (2010). Long-term effects of social investment: the case of partnering in young adulthood. Journal of Personality, 78, 639–670

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, R. J. R. (1993). The romantic experience of adolescents in satisfying love relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22, 219–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lim, B. C., & Ployhart, R. E. (2006). Assessing the convergent and discriminant validity of Goldberg’s International Personality Item Pool: A multitrait-multimethod examination. Organizational Research Methods, 9, 29–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, L., Xu, L., Luo, F., & Li, Y. (2018). Intergenerational transmission of interpersonal strengths: The role of parent gender, family processes, and child characteristics. Journal of Adolescence, 67, 66–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeb, E. L., Kansky, J., Tan, J. S., Costello, M. A., & Allen, J. P. (2021). Perceived psychological control in early adolescence predicts lower levels of adaptation into mid‐adulthood. Child Development, 92(2), e158–e172

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeb, E. L., Stern, J. A., Costello, M. A., & Allen, J. P. (2021). With (out) a little help from my friends: insecure attachment in adolescence, support-seeking, and adult negativity and hostility. Attachment & Human Development, 23(5), 624–642

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. Guilford Press

  • Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2013). The role of attachment security in adolescent and adult close relationships. In J. A. Simpson & L. Campbell (Eds.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of close relationships (pp. 66–89). Oxford University Press

  • Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2020). Broaden-and-build effects of contextually boosting the sense of attachment security in adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(1), 22–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, M. M., Szwedo, D. E., & Allen, J. P. (2018). Learning to cope with anxiety: Long-term links from adolescence to adult career satisfaction. Journal of Adolescence, 64, 1–12

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, M. J. (2005). Psychosocial intimacy and identity: From early adolescence to emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(3), 346–374

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moutsiana, C., Johnstone, T., Murray, L., Fearon, P., Cooper, P. J., Pliatsikas, C., & Halligan, S. L. (2015). Insecure attachment during infancy predicts greater amygdala volumes in early adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(5), 540–548

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neyer, F. J., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2001). Personality–relationship transaction in young adulthood. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 81(6), 1190–1204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 322–338

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prager, K. J., & Buhrmester, D. (1998). Intimacy and need fulfillment in couple relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(4), 435–469

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, B. W., Wood, D., & Caspi, A. (2008). Personality development. In O. P. John & R. W. Robins (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 375–398). New York, NY: Guilford

  • Roisman, G. I., Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child development, 75(1), 123–133

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, N. L., & Kobak, R. (2010). Assessing adolescents’ attachment hierarchies: Differences across developmental periods and associations with individual adaptation. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(3), 678–706

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472–480

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I., Johnson, J., & Siegel, J. (1978). Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the Life Experiences Survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 932–946

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, E. S. (1965). Children’s report of parental behavior: An inventory. Child Development, 36, 413–424

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schludermann, E., & Schludermann, S. (1970). Replicability of factors in children’s reports of parent behavior (CRPBI). Journal of Psychology, 76, 239–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schludermann, S., & Schludermann, E. (1988). Notes of the CRPBI-30. Unpublished document, Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, Canada

  • Schmutte, P. S., & Ryff, C. D. (1997). Personality and well-being: reexamining methods and meanings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 549–559

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield, T. J., Conger, R. D., Donnellan, M. B., Jochem, R., Widaman, K. F., & Conger, K. J. (2012). Parent personality and positive parenting as predictors of positive adolescent personality development over time. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 58(2), 255–283

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scriber, R. A., & Guyer, A. E. (2017). Adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social context. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.12.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., Gross, J. T., Stern, J. A., & Cassidy, J. A. (2016). A lifespan perspective on attachment and care for others: Empathy, altruism, and prosocial behavior. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 878–916). Guilford Press

  • Shiner, R. L., Allen, T. A., & Masten, A. S. (2017). Adversity in adolescence predicts personality trait change from childhood to adulthood. Journal of Research in Personality, 67, 171–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (2005). Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 7(4), 349–367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. D., & Mounts, N. S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among adolescents. Child Development, 60, 1424–1436

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suizzo, M. A. (2007). Parents’ goals and values for children: Dimensions of independence and interdependence across four US ethnic groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(4), 506–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Surjadi, F. F., Lorenz, F. O., Wickrama, K. A. S., & Conger, R. D. (2011). Parental support, partner support, and the trajectories of mastery from adolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 34(4), 619–628

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Syed, M., & Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2013). Personality development from adolescence to emerging adulthood: Linking trajectories of ego development to the family context and identity formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(2), 371

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szwedo, D. E., Hessel, E. T., Loeb, E. L., Hafen, C. A., & Allen, J. P. (2017). Adolescent support seeking as a path to adult functional independence. Developmental Psychology, 53(5), 949–961

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • VandenBos, G. R. (Ed.) (2007). APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association

  • Vogel, D. L., & Wei, M. (2005). Adult attachment and help-seeking intent: The mediating roles of psychological distress and perceived social support. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(3), 347–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., Dennison, M., Vijayakumar, N., Schwartz, O., Yap, M. B. H., Sheeber, L., & Allen, N. B. (2014). Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 8, 7–17

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeifman, D., & Hazan, C. (2008). Pair bonds as attachments: Reevaluating the evidence. In: J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 436–455). New York: Guilford

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Contributions

D.E.S. conceived of the study, performed the statistical analysis, interpreted the data, and drafted the manuscript; J.A.S. helped to draft the manuscript; J.K. helped to draft the manuscript; E.L. helped to draft the manuscript; J.P.A. participated in study design and coordination and interpretation of the data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by grants from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the National Institute of Mental Health (5R37HD058305-23, R01HD058305-16A1, R01-MH58066).

Data Sharing and Declaration

This manuscript’s data will not be deposited.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David E. Szwedo.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical Approval

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association and the Institutional Review Board of the University of Virginia.

Informed Consent

Informed consent from the parents and informed assent from all participants were obtained before each interview session when the participant was under 18 years old. Later, informed consent was obtained directly from the participants after age 18.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Szwedo, D.E., Stern, J.A., Kansky, J. et al. Parent and Romantic Partner Behaviors during Adolescence as Predictors of Young Adult Positive Personality, Relational Competence, and Functional Independence. J Youth Adolescence 51, 1926–1943 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01641-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01641-1

Keywords

Navigation